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Seminar 1: CHEN Jinhua 陳金華 (University of British Columbia 英屬哥倫比亞大學): The Marginal vs the Mainstream, the Irregular vs Regular: Big Impact of “Bit Parts” in East Asian Buddhism | 邊中轉換、奇正相倚：東亞佛教中“小角色”的大戲碼
Traditional historical narratives are often grounded in the notion that “history is written by the victors.” As a result, historical development has been compressed into a grand narrative centered around “great events” orchestrated by “great figures.” While this mode of historiography has been highly effective in constructing political legitimacy and shaping cultural identity, it also leads to a one-dimensional and selective account of historical experience. In reality, the process of historical formation is far more complex than what official historiography may suggest. The narratives authorized by institutions of power frequently obscure, erase, or marginalize the actions and experiences of many agents in history—particularly those on the social periphery—resulting in selective memory and intentional forgetting. 傳統歷史敘事往往建立在「勝利者書寫歷史」的史觀之上，使歷史發展被壓縮為圍繞著「大人物」進行的「大戲碼」（或曰「大事件」）。這種宏大敘事雖然在建構政權合法性、塑造文化認同上具有高度效能，但同時也導致歷史經驗的片面化與單一化。實際上，歷史的生成過程遠比官方文本所呈現的更為複雜：權力機構的敘事常將歷史中其他多數參與者——特別是社會邊緣群體——的行動與經驗遮蔽或抹煞，形成一種選擇性記憶與有意識的遺忘。
First, the authors of historical texts are not always the true agents of historical change. Historical records are most often produced and curated by literate elites—individuals whose worldview, social position, and political or religious affiliations profoundly shape both what is recorded and how it is interpreted. This asymmetry of epistemic authority is especially evident in medieval East Asia, where both political histories penned by Confucian literati and religious chronicles compiled by clerical elites reflect layers of selection, interpretation, and ideological control. 首先，歷史的書寫者與歷史的真正創造者並不總是相重疊的。史料往往由受過教育、有書寫能力的精英們所產出、編輯，他們的世界觀、社會立場及宗教政治偏好對歷史的記錄與詮釋產生重大影響，進而造成知識權力的不對等。這種現象在中古東亞尤為明顯，無論是士大夫文人書寫的政治史，還是宗教典籍所記載的教團發展，其背後皆蘊含著篩選、詮釋與操控的力量。
Second, the major turning points of history—though attributed to prominent figures—are frequently undergirded by the daily practices and collective actions of countless “small actors.” Unnamed refugees, for example, played key roles in the redistribution of population and labor during times of upheaval, shattering the fences of old faiths, and rousing the tides of new beliefs. Spirit mediums and wandering monks operated in liminal social spaces, challenging established religious orthodoxy through unauthorized ritual activity. Merchants and monk-agents (or “monastic spies”) served as transmitters of both goods and knowledge, effectively shaping transregional networks of exchange. Even eunuchs and military personnel, through their negotiations between imperial courts and frontier regions, often exerted significant institutional influence despite their ambivalent political status. 其次，歷史舞台上看似由「大人物」主導的轉捩點，往往是建立在無數「小人物」的日常實踐與集體行動之上。無名的流民在動盪中牽動人口與勞動力的再配置，衝決著舊宗教的藩籬、鼓煽著新宗教的潮汐；神秘莫測的巫覡與狂僧在社會邊緣地帶進行儀式活動，挑戰官方宗教秩序；商旅與僧諜作為知識與物資的傳遞者，實則在無形中形塑了跨地區的交流網絡；甚至連宦官與武人在權力中心（如內廷）或權力邊緣（如邊疆）之間的斡旋行動，也往往具有深遠的制度性影響。
Third, historical memory is replete with both accidental omissions and deliberate acts of concealment, leading to the ongoing reconstruction—or fabrication—of certain figures’ roles within historical discourse. Some individuals are mythologized, demonized, or even invented outright to serve political agendas, while others are silenced simply because they remain outside the framework of textual production. One of the central tasks of historiography, therefore, is to recover the suppressed, silenced, or marginalized voices through close textual reading and intertextual comparison. 第三，歷史記憶中充斥著無心的遺忘與有意的遮蔽，導致不同的歷史參與者其形象與角色被持續重構。某些人物因政治需要被神化、妖魔化，甚至虛構出來；而另一些則因無法進入書寫體系而徹底沉沒於歷史記憶之外。史學的任務之一，便是透過對文本的細讀與跨文本的比較，還原這些被壓抑、被靜默、邊緣化的聲音。
Fourth, history is multilayered and multidimensional in nature. A figure deemed insignificant in one historical time-space may, through contingency or retrospective interpretation, come to exert a disproportionate influence on later developments. Conversely, a dominant actor of one era may gradually lose all symbolic and functional relevance in subsequent contexts. The meaning and value of historical events and agents often transcend the political structures and symbolic systems of their immediate temporal setting. 第四，歷史具有多層次與多維度的動態性。一名在某一時空中被視為無足輕重的小人物，其行動可能因偶然因素或後續詮釋而對後世產生巨大影響，成為歷史轉捩的契機。反之，曾經叱吒一時的權力人物，也可能在歷史長河中逐漸失去其職能與影響力。歷史的意義與價值，因此常常超越其發生當下的政治脈絡與象徵體系。
This intensive seminar will focus on the socio-religious worlds of medieval East Asia as its primary historical context. Through an interdisciplinary approach, it will examine a wide range of “small figures” often excluded from dominant historical narratives—such as refugees, shamans, mad monks, monastic spies, eunuchs, merchants, and warriors. The seminar will investigate how these marginal actors “performed” critical roles in unexpected historical dramas within the intertwined structures of religious and secular life. Ultimately, the course aims to reconstruct and critically analyze these non-canonical historical agents, challenging the centers of power and bias in historical narration, and reimagining the possibilities of history-writing from the bottom up and from the margins inward. 本密集課程將以中古時期東亞地區為主要時空背景，透過多學科視角，聚焦於歷史敘事之外的「小人物」，如流民、巫覡、狂僧、僧諜、宦官、商人、武人等，並探討其如何在宗教與世俗交織的社會結構中「演出」各種意想不到的歷史「大戲碼」。課程旨在透過對這些非典型歷史主體的重構與分析，挑戰歷史敘述中的權力中心與認知偏差，並從底層與邊界重新思考歷史書寫與再書寫的可能性。
- History, Historical Narratives, and the Re-narration of History: On the Concealing and Revealing Functions, the Constant and Changing Patterns in Hegemonic Historical Discourses 歷史、歷史敘述、與歷史敘述的再敘述：論歷史霸權性敘述的隱與顯、常與變;
- The “Great Drama” Played by the “Little People”: Shamans, Mad Monks, and Migrants in the Context of Buddhist Transmission in East Asia “小人物”的“大戲碼”：佛教傳播視野下的巫覡、狂僧與流民;
- Religious Information Networks as Sources of Power: An Analysis of the So-called “Monk-Spies” in History 作為權力來源的宗教信息網絡：歷史上所謂僧諜的解析.
Seminar 2: Benjamin BROSE 本博澤 (University of Michigan 密西根大學): History, Fiction, and Ritual: Xuanzang’s Infinite Incarnations | 歷史、小說與儀式：玄奘的無量化身
This lecture series will explore some of the lesser-known legacies of the eminent Tang-dynasty monk Xuanzang (600/602–664). We begin with a discussion of the historical figure focusing on his extraordinary travels through Central Asia and India and his translation work after he returned to the capital of Chang’an. We will then consider the discovery of Xuanzang’s relics in the 1940s and their subsequent circulation throughout Asia in the second half of the twentieth century.
The remaining lectures center on some of the fantastical legends that developed around Xuanzang and his pilgrimage in the centuries after his death. We first examine the earliest sources for Xuanzang’s deification and the emergence of mythic narratives centered on his life and travels. We then explore several exorcistic traditions that are based on mythologized versions of Xuanzang’s pilgrimage. Next, we consider the religious traditions associated with Xuanzang’s companion from the Journey to the West story—Zhu Bajie—as practiced in contemporary Taiwan. The final lecture will explore how Christian missionaries and Chinese intellectuals understood and reacted to Journey to the West narratives during the early decades of the twentieth century.
該講座系列將探討著名的唐代高僧玄奘（600/602–664）一些鮮爲人知的遺產。我們首先討論這一歷史人物，重點關注他非凡的中亞和印度旅行經歷，以及他返回長安後從事的譯經工作。然後，我們將考慮玄奘遺物在20世紀40年代的發現以及它們在20世紀下半葉在亞洲的傳播。
其餘的講座集中在圍繞玄奘及其朝聖之旅在他去世數世紀後發展起來的一些奇幻傳奇。我們首先研究有關玄奘神化的最早資料，以及圍繞他的生活和旅行而形成的神話敘述的出現。接下來，我們探討幾種基於玄奘神話化朝聖故事的驅魔（儺）傳統。然後，我們會審視與《西遊記》故事中玄奘的同伴——豬八戒——相關的宗教傳統在當代臺灣。最後的講座將探討基督教傳教士和中國知識分子在20世紀早期對《西遊記》故事有如何理解並回應。
- 1.1 The Historical Xuanzang: Evidence and Lacunae | 歷史上的玄奘——證據與空白；
- 1.2 Xuanzang’s Skull: Relic Diplomacy in Modern Asia | 玄奘的頭骨——現代亞洲的聖物外交；
- 1.3 The Birth of a Legend: Early Sources | 傳說的誕生——早期資料來源；
- 1.4 Pilgrimage as Exorcism: The Journey to the West as Ritual Process | 朝聖如驅邪——《西遊記》作為一種儀式過程；
- 1.5 Rites of Reenactment: Xuanzang and Salvational Associations | 重演的儀式——玄奘與救贖性的結社；
- 1.6 Mapping the Monk: Some Theoretical Considerations | 僧侶地圖化——一些理論上的考量。
Seminar 3: SHENG Kai 聖凱 (Tsinghua University 清華大學): 從淨土教到淨土宗：五臺山信仰與唐宋佛教轉型作為背景 | From the Teachings of Pure Land to the School of Pure Land: Against the Backdrops of the Wutai Faith and Buddhism’s Tang-Song Transition
- 曇鸞淨土教與五台山神仙信仰 Tanluan’s Pure Land Teachings and the Shenxian Belief at Mount Wutai
曇鸞在當初對神仙信仰的追求，還是後來轉向淨土教、歸心於龍樹思想，皆淵源於在五台山的出家與學習。曇鸞受到五台山神仙信仰氛圍的影響，而且通過自身的三次體驗，更堅定了對“靈異”“長生”的追求。曇鸞弘揚“名即法”的名號觀，將思想的超越性轉化為信仰的動力，並且引用結合自己過去神仙信仰所帶來的體驗，以咒術的靈驗鼓勵民眾的阿彌陀佛信仰。
Tanluan’s initial pursuit of Shenxian beliefs and his later turn toward Pure Land teachings and devotion to Nāgārjuna’s thought can both be traced back to his ordination and study at Mount Wutai. Influenced by the spiritual atmosphere of Shenxian beliefs prevalent at Mount Wutai, Tanluan’s three personal experiences further strengthened his yearning for the supernatural and for longevity. He promoted the idea of “name as dharma” in Pure Land practice, transforming the transcendence of thought into a driving force for religious faith. Drawing on his earlier experiences with the efficacy of Shenxian practices, Tanluan used the perceived power of incantations to encourage popular devotion to Amitābha Buddha.
- 法照淨土教與五台山文殊信仰 The Pure Land Teachings of Fazhao and the Mañjuśrī Cult of Mount Wutai
在法照的一生中，在南嶽創立“五會念佛”，後入五臺山創建大竹林寺，五臺山則是自修與弘教、世俗與神秘的人生分界點，文殊信仰則是這種分界點的根本原因。
Fazhao devised the “five ways of nianfo practice” at Nanyue and thereafter went to Mount Wutai to build Dazhulin-si. Mount Wutai was the demarcation point in his life between self-cultivation and proselytization, and the worldly and the spiritual.
- 從淨土教到淨土宗：唐宋佛教轉型的契機From Pure Land Teachings to the Pure Land School: A Turning Point in the Transformation of Tang–Song Buddhism
唐代的淨土信仰分為“淨土教”與“淨土倡導者”兩種形態，前者是天台、三論、禪宗等諸家解釋、匯通、批判淨土思想，後者是道綽、善導等弘揚、提倡淨土信仰。唐中期後，隨著迦才、懷感、法照等立足於西方淨土，批判禪宗等；至五代宋初，隨著淨土結社的流行，宗派譜系的建構，逐漸建立起“淨土宗”。
During the Tang dynasty, Pure Land belief took on two main forms: “Pure Land teachings” and “Pure Land advocates.” The former refers to the interpretations, integrations, and critiques of Pure Land thought by various schools such as Tiantai, Sanlun, and Chan; the latter refers to key proponents like Daochuo and Shandao who actively promoted and propagated Pure Land faith. After the mid-Tang period, with notable proponents such as Jicai, Huaigan, and Fazhao establishing their stance on the Western Pure Land and criticizing Chan Buddhism, and especially with the spread of lay Pure Land societies and the construction of sectarian genealogies in the late Five Dynasties and early Song, the “Pure Land School” gradually came into being.
- Reading reference (accessible to intensive program participants)
Lecture 1: ZHANG Huiming 張惠明 (Chinese National Academy of Paintings 中國國家畫院): 西域早期大乘佛教文獻中的佛教護法鬼神——從哈達到敦煌的龍王圖像 | The Buddhist Deities and Ghosts Defending of the Law in the Early Mahayana Buddhist Scriptures of the Western Regions——the Dragon King image from Hada to Dunhuang
龍王作爲最早進入到佛教神鬼護法圖像中的一個重要圖像在西域地區是出現得最早且流傳甚廣的圖像，在公元2～4世紀間曾在受犍陀羅文化與藝術影響的區域內廣爲流傳。那竭與于闐作爲早期犍陀羅語大乘佛典在帕米爾高原以西和以東地區最重要的傳播之地，兩地所發現的佛教文本與圖像資料均表明了龍王圖像在進入佛教護法神系之初期所受到的多種宗教、文化影響。同時，圖像本身也帶有複合性的文化內涵與不同的藝術風格等元素特徵。位於塔克拉瑪干沙漠邊緣西南的于闐國曾是大乘佛教最重要的傳播地，在佛教從北印度地區經帕米爾高原向東傳播過程中，屬於印度早期大乘佛教系統的《大集經》（The Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra）與《華嚴經》（The Avataṃsaka Sūtra）在於闐頗具影響。在這兩部經典中天龍、夜叉等八部鬼神已經作爲護法眷屬出於佛的左右。隨着佛典的東傳，護法鬼神信仰也得以流傳至於闐以東地區，特別是公元8—9世紀吐蕃王國的興盛和佔領河西地區以後，鬼神信仰也出現在漢文化影響甚深的敦煌地區，吐蕃佔領時期的敦煌漢文寫本與石窟壁畫中所展示的佛教節日場面都顯示出藏漢文化中對鬼神驅避多於敬畏習俗的影響，夜叉在這一時期的佛教護法鬼神圖像譜系中的地位也呈現出下降的趨勢。由於時間關係這裏我僅以于闐—敦煌兩地現存幾個畫例略作陳述。本講座將圍繞哈達、于闐及敦煌等地出土的龍王雕塑與繪畫資料，結合相關佛教文本文獻闡釋早期大乘佛教護法鬼神——龍王圖像在西域地區流傳過程中發展演變的基本特徵，同時，說明龍王圖像在從哈達到敦煌流傳過程中，所受到的多種民族宗教、文化與藝術的影響，使龍王圖像帶有諸多複合的宗教文化與藝術元素。
As one of the earliest and most widely spread images of Buddhist deities and ghosts defending of the Law, the Dragon King (Nāgarāja) image appeared earliest and spread extensively in the western region, was widely spread in the areas influenced by Gandharan culture and art between the second centuries and the fourth centuries. Nagarahara and Khotan were the most important places of dissemination of the early Gandharan Mahayana sutras to the west and east of the Pamirs. The Buddhist texts and iconographic materials found in both places indicate that the Dragon King image was influenced by various religions and cultures at the early stage of incorporation into the “Defenders of the Law” in Buddhist iconography. At the same time, the image itself also has the complex cultural connotation and different artistic styles and other elements. The kingdom of Khotan, located on the southwestern edge of the Taklamakan Desert, was the most important centers for the dissemination of Mahayana Buddhism. During the eastward spread of Buddhism from northern India across the Pamir Plateau, the Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra and the Avataṃsaka Sūtra belonging to the early Indian Mahayana Buddhist scripture system, had a significant influence in Khotan. In these two scriptures, the eight classes of divine beings (Aṣṭasenā) such as the nāgas and yakshas already appeared as the “Defenders of the Law” (dharmapāla) on the left and right of the Buddha.With the eastward transmission of Buddhist scriptures, the belief of the deities and ghosts defending the Law also spread to the regions east of Khotan. Especially after the rise and occupation of the Hexi region by the Tibetan Empire in the 8th and 9th centuries, the belief of deities and ghosts also emerged in the Dunhuang area, which was deeply influenced by Han culture. The Chinese manuscripts and grotto murals of Dunhuang from the period of Tibetan occupation, which depicted Buddhist festival scenes, all showed the influence of the customs in Tibetan and Han cultures that focus more on driving away deities and ghosts than on revering them. The status of yakshas in the iconography of Buddhist deities and ghosts defending of the Law during this period also showed a downward trend. This lecture will focus on the sculptures and painting materials of the Dragon King unearthed in the places such as Hada, Khotan, and Dunhuang, and in combination with relevant Buddhist text and literature, elucidate the basic characteristics of the development and evolution of the Dragon King images as the early Mahayana Buddhist deities and ghosts defending of the Law during their spread in the western regions. Meanwhile, it will explain during the dissemination of the Dragon King image from Hada to Dunhuang, it was subjected to diverse ethnic, religious, cultural, and artistic influences, which endowed the image with numerous composite religious, cultural, and artistic elements.
Lecture 2: Lucia DOLCE 鐸鷺霞 (SOAS, University of London 英國倫敦大學亞非學院): Visualizing Śākyamuni’s Pure Land: Images from the Lotus tradition | 關照釋迦牟尼之淨土：源自法華傳統的圖像
This presentation explores the visual construction of the space in which Śākyamuni expounded the Lotus Sutra—a realm understood within Sino-Japanese Buddhist traditions as Śākyamuni’s Pure Land. The analysis focuses specifically on iconographic developments in Japan, spanning from the medieval through the modern period.
The lecture begins by identifying key tropes in the Lotus Sutra’s narrative structure, which evolved into prominent motifs in its visual interpretations. This part demonstrates the profound influence that Tiantai/Tendai doctrinal interpretations have exerted on Lotus Sutra pictorial narratives.
The discussion then broadens to analyse imagery produced within the wider context of “Lotus ritual culture,” encompassing works influenced by Tantric Buddhist manuals and Nichiren’s devotional practices. This exploration interrogates the shifting ritual framework that generated distinctive visual conceptualizations of the fields of merit emanating from Śākyamuni, and draws attention to the practices developed to activate such meritorious potential.
本報告探討釋迦牟尼宣講《法華經》時所建構的視覺空間在中日佛教傳統中被理解為釋迦牟尼的淨土。分析重點聚焦於日本自中世以至近現代之間，與此相關的圖像發展。
講座首先辨識《法華經》敘事結構中的關鍵母題，這些母題在圖像詮釋中演化為重要的視覺主題。此部分將說明中日天台宗義理對於《法華經》繪畫敘事所產生的深遠影響。
接著，討論範圍將擴展至「法華儀式文化」的廣泛背景中所產生的圖像作品，涵蓋受密教儀軌與日蓮宗信仰實踐影響的創作。此探討關注產生於不同儀式框架中的視覺概念轉變，尤其針對釋迦牟尼所發散出的「功德場域」的視覺化形式，並指出為了啟動這些功德潛能而發展出的各種宗教實踐。
- Reading 1 (accessible to intensive program participants)
- Reading 2 (accessible to intensive program participants)
Lecture 3: Mark BLUM 貝萬合 (University of California, Berkeley 美國加州大學柏克萊分校): A Brief History of Nianfo, From Mindfulness Practice to an Object of Faith | 念佛簡史：從正念實踐到信仰對象
The practice of nianfo has an unusual history in that it came to embody many different meanings because (a) the verb nian 念 was used by translators to represent different Indic words in Chinese translations, mostly focusing on mindfulness practices associated with the Sanskrit smṛti/anusmṛti, and (b) a fusion ensued incorporating those meanings and those of namo 南無 expressing homage and devotion in vocalized form, thereby giving nianfo a unique identity. Starting in the Tang period, scholars began to talk about their faith in nianfo and taking refuge in nianfo, something that never happened with Chan meditation, for example. In Japan this became a point of orthodoxy. From the Tang period when nianfo was often taken to mean recitation, this led to musical, poetic, and theatrical expression, especially in Japan. By the Southern Song period in China and Kamakura period in Japan, we see various sectarian forms of Pure Land Buddhism with nianfo practice as a kind of orthodox practice, including the White Lotus movement. This talk will outline the major themes of this history.
念佛的實踐具有一段不尋常的歷史，其意涵之所以多元，主要有兩個原因：（一）在漢譯佛經中，譯者使用「念」這個動詞來對應多個梵語詞彙，主要集中於與smṛti/anusmṛti（正念/憶念）相關的正念修行；（二）後來的發展融合了這些意涵與「南無」（namo）的聲音表達，後者是表示皈依與敬意的梵語音譯。這樣的結合，賦予了「念佛」獨特的宗教身份。自唐代起，學者們開始談論對念佛的信仰，以及「依念佛而皈依」，這在禪宗禪修中是未曾出現的現象。在日本，這一點甚至成為教義上的正統觀。從唐代起，「念佛」常被理解為「稱念」或「誦念」，這種理解逐漸引發了音樂、詩歌乃至戲劇形式的表達，尤其在日本更為發達。到了中國南宋時期以及日本鎌倉時代，念佛實踐被視為一種「正統修行」，並且出現了多種淨土宗派別的形式，包括白蓮教等民間宗教運動。本次演講將概述這段歷史的主要主題與發展軌跡。
