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Seminar 1: Ru ZHAN 湛如 (Peking University 北京大學) and Jinhua CHEN 陳金華 (The University of British Columbia 加拿大英屬哥倫比亞大學): When the Marginal Turned out to be More Central than the Centre: Several Case Studies of Buddhist Monks and Their Religious Traditions from Khotan and Gandhāra | 邊地寔為中國：來自于闐與犍陀羅的數位僧人及其宗教傳承新考
- 「邊地情節」與「全球在地化」：理解宗教跨文化與跨疆域傳播複雜動態的兩大理論範式 | Borderland Complex and Glocalization: Two Paradigms for Understanding the Complex Dynamics of Religious Cross-cultural and Cross-border Transmission
本講旨在探討宗教信息跨文化流布過程中兩個極具啟發性之理論範疇：「邊地情節」（borderland complex）與「全球在地化」（glocalization），並試圖藉此揭示宗教傳播在權威重構與文化移易層面的深層動力。
「邊地情節」揭示宗教自核心地區傳播至異域時，中心與邊緣的地位轉換及其所蘊含的象徵張力。此一轉換不僅映照出原有宗教權威與新興信仰空間間的高下落差，更反映出宗教權力並非恆定不變，而是會隨時間與地理環境的更迭而重新配置。邊地，雖在初始階段或被視為教義傳播之終末之地，然往往因在地信仰實踐與社群建構的深化，而逐漸蛻變為新的精神重心與制度創新之所，進而對傳統宗教中心構成反向影響。
與此交相呼應者，則為當代宗教研究中廣為關注之「全球在地化」理論。此一概念主張，宗教在全球傳播的進程中，雖具備普世化的向度，然其真正落地生根，仍有賴於與在地文化、語言、社會結構的深度交融。全球化與本土化並非對立之二元，而是一種交織互依、動態生成的複合體。全球化所帶來的文化共通性、理念通約性，若無本土化之積極轉化，則難以於異域社會獲得認可與持續生命力；反之，唯有於具體時空條件中適切調整、靈活應對，宗教方能完成從「他者之道」轉化為「吾人之信」的過程。
宗教，作為具有普遍性訴求之文化體系，固然自帶全球擴展的內在驅力，然其跨域傳播之實踐歷程，往往不僅是教義移植，更是一場深刻的語境轉譯與象徵再造。以佛教為例，雖源出於古印度之恒河流域，其中心地位長期未受質疑，然自中原佛教體系日益成熟、印度本土佛教式微之後，中國、東亞遂逐步成為佛教新興權威之所在。此一宗教中心的位移，恰說明了在全球在地化的歷史進程中，聖地與權威亦可隨文化重構而發生根本性的轉換。
本文由是主張，唯有從「邊地情節」與「全球在地化」兩大理論進路出發，方能更深刻地把握宗教傳播在歷史演變與文化適應中的雙重面向。宗教的全球擴散，不僅僅是空間向度上的延展，更是文化意義與權力結構不斷被重織與再生的歷史過程。於此張力與交融之中，宗教得以超越疆界、歷久彌新，構築出一幅涵容差異、靈動不拘的信仰圖景。
This talk explores two interrelated conceptual frameworks—borderland complex and glocalization—both of which are essential for understanding the complex dynamics of religious transmission across cultural and geographical boundaries.
The notion of borderland complex illuminates the symbolic and structural shifts that occur when religious traditions move from their point of origin to new, often culturally and politically distinct, territories. In this process, the conventional distinction between religious “centers” and “peripheries” becomes fluid. While newly reached regions may initially be perceived as marginal or secondary to the established centers of orthodoxy, they often emerge, through localized adaptation and innovation, as new loci of religious authority and creativity. Historical experience demonstrates that religious legitimacy is not immutable; rather, it is subject to transformation across temporal and spatial domains.
In tandem with this is the theory of glocalization, a concept that foregrounds the dialectical interplay between global dissemination and local adaptation. Far from being a mere opposition, globalization and localization operate as a mutually constitutive process. On one hand, globalization promotes homogenizing tendencies—spreading shared doctrines, symbols, and rituals across vast territories. On the other, localization insists on the indispensability of cultural specificity and socio-political responsiveness. It is only through this dynamic synthesis that religious traditions can achieve lasting resonance in unfamiliar settings. In this light, glocalization is not only a theoretical lens but a historical necessity for understanding how universal religious ideals are actualized within particular contexts.
Religion, by its very nature, often carries an inherent impulse toward universality. It aspires to transcend borders and articulate values that are deemed applicable to all of humanity. Yet the process of global religious transmission is never linear or unidirectional. Rather, it is continually challenged, negotiated, and reshaped by the linguistic, cultural, and political complexities of the regions it seeks to enter. As religions embed themselves in new cultural matrices, they undergo processes of translation—not only linguistic but symbolic and ritual—that ensure their relevance and survival.
The history of Buddhism offers a compelling example. Although originally rooted in the Gangetic plains of ancient India—which long held undisputed authority as the sacred heartland of the tradition—the decline of Indian Buddhism and the concurrent rise of Chinese and East Asian Buddhist cultures led to a gradual relocation of religious authority. China, over time, emerged not merely as a recipient of Buddhism but as a new cultural and doctrinal center. This shift in religious geography underscores the capacity of peripheral zones to evolve into new epicenters of spiritual legitimacy.
Thus, this study argues that an integrated approach—one that takes seriously both peripheral consciousness and the mechanisms of glocalization—provides a more nuanced understanding of the transmission of religious knowledge and authority. Religious globalization is not only a matter of spatial expansion but also a process of profound cultural reconfiguration and symbolic negotiation. Within this ongoing interplay of difference and integration, religion finds renewed vitality, continually reshaping the spiritual map of the world.
- 從一位于闐質王子到唐土的譯經師與禪修大師：智嚴複雜人生的重構 | From a Khotanese Prince-Hostage to a Buddhist Translator and Meditation Amster in Tang China: A Reconstruction of a Complex Life of Zhiyan
唐代印度僑僧善無畏（637–735）圓寂之後，其所傳《大日經》義理遂由門下兩位高弟——一行（683–727）與智儼（約活躍於八世紀初）——繼承而展開詮釋，最終形成兩部相互輝映的註釋體系：其一為一行撰寫、篇幅宏富之《大日經疏》二十卷；其二則為智儼所述、相對簡約凝鍊之《大日經義釋》十四卷。前者因一行博通天文曆算、兼擅佛理，早已聲名卓著，功業彪炳於世；後者則因資料稀缺，久被湮沒於歷史塵埃，所傳寥寥，幾近失諸人間。
本文擬從歷史重構之視角，嘗試釐清此位神祕譯僧智儼之身份與軌跡。筆者認為，此智儼極可能即見載於贊寧《宋高僧傳》卷十八〈譯經篇〉之同名僧人，其俗姓欝持樂，當屬尉遲氏族，極可能為于闐王族之後裔，少年時期以質子身份入唐，旋奉朝命出家為僧，後成為一位活躍於盛唐中葉的譯經沙門。雖尚難斷定其是否與著名畫師尉遲乙僧具血緣關係，然其身世之尊顯與文化背景之深厚，無疑為理解其思想養成與宗教定位提供關鍵線索。
更有甚者，據現存資料推測，此智儼應即八世紀初大敬愛寺活躍之同名僧人，該僧不僅註疏《楞伽經》，且具深厚禪修功底，乃北宗禪承傳者龐塢元珪（644–716）之嫡傳弟子。由此觀之，智儼不僅參與密教義疏之傳譯工作，亦深涉禪宗修習與弘演，其身影既橫跨兩大修行系統，亦體現唐代佛教多元交錯、修證與翻譯並進之歷史特質。
本文藉由重構智儼此一多重身份交織、生命經歷繁複的歷史人物，冀從一側面揭示于闐文化對中原佛教的深遠貢獻，並進一步展現盛唐佛教世界主義（cosmopolitanism）之特質——教派之間無礙融通，族群之間兼收並蓄。與此同時，亦意在彰顯世俗王權如何藉助佛教進行地方治理與文化重塑，說明佛教在唐代既為精神信仰之依歸，亦為政治秩序之工具，實乃帝國整合策略之一環。
After the passing of the Indian monk Śubhakarasiṃha (637–735) in Tang China, his foundational commentary on the Chinese version of the Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Sūtra was carried forward by his distinguished disciples—Yixing (683–727) and Zhiyan (active in the early 8th century). Yixing composed the extensive twenty-juan Dàrìjīng shū, while Zhiyan authored the more concise fourteen-juan Dàrìjīng yìshì. Yixing was already celebrated for his mastery of astronomy, calendrics, and Buddhist doctrine, his achievements well-enshrined in history. In contrast, Zhiyan remained relatively obscure, his contributions nearly lost to time.
This talk adopts a historical reconstruction approach to clarify Zhiyan’s identity. It argues that Zhiyan is likely the same monk recorded in Zanning’s Song gaoseng zhuan [Song-era Biographies of Eminent Monks], with the secular name Yuchi Le, belonging to the Yuchi clan—possibly descended from Khotanese royalty—and brought to Tang China as a political hostage. He later received court sanction to enter the monastic order and became a prominent translator of Buddhist texts during the High Tang period. Although it remains uncertain whether he was related to the famed court painter Yuchi Yiseng, his aristocratic background and cultural milieu provide vital insights into his intellectual formation and religious career.
Further evidence indicates that Zhiyan may also be the same monk active at Dajing’ai Monastery in the early eighth century. There, he not only composed a commentary on the Chinese translation of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, but was also a meditation master under the Northern Chan patriarch Pangwu Yuangui (644–716). Thus, Zhiyan’s career traversed both esoteric translation and Chan practice, embodying the dynamic synthesis of doctrinal study and meditative traditions characteristic of Tang Buddhism.
By reconstructing the multifaceted life of Zhiyan, this talk highlights Khotan’s contributions to central Chinese Buddhist culture and showcases the cosmopolitan nature of High Tang Buddhism—marked by doctrinal openness, inter-sectarian exchange, and ethnic inclusivity. It also reveals how imperial power leveraged Buddhism to project authority and shape regional cultural identities, illustrating that during the Tang, Buddhism functioned both as a spiritual tradition and a tool of statecraft.
- 禪法東漸：論罽賓禪法對5–6世紀南朝（420–589）禪系中身份認同與網絡建構的作用 | The Eastward Transmission of Meditation: On the Role of Kāśyapīya Meditation in Identity Formation and Network Construction within the Southern Dynasties (420–589) Meditation Traditions
本講聚焦於中國南方金陵與荊州兩地，細緻考察公元四至六世紀期間南方禪法之傳承與發展。透過梳理以金陵、荊州為核心之主要習禪者行跡，揭示其多數與自公元四○四年或四○八年經罽賓至長安的天竺高僧暨譯經家佛馱跋陀羅（359-429）存有深厚淵源。隨著歲月流轉，佛馱跋陀羅之數位弟子與再傳弟子亦先後抵達金陵，成為當地禪系發展的中堅力量。
綜觀金陵與荊州禪系之演變，佛馱跋陀羅及其僧團所傳罽賓禪法，於兩地禪宗的形成與演進中，展現出決定性且主導性的影響力。史料亦昭示，南朝時期（宋、齊、梁、陳），金陵與荊州禪系保持頻繁且緊密的交流互動，織就一幅彼此滋養、交相輝映的宗教網絡。
就荊楚禪系而言，慧思及其僧團被視為連結金陵與荊州禪系的關鍵樞紐。慧思對荊州禪風的深遠影響，從其門下弟子多與該地禪系緊密相關可見一斑，彰顯其在區域禪學傳播與發展中的核心地位。更為重要的是，本文指出慧思與以金陵、廬山、荊州為中心的南方禪系交織之歷史，實遠較既往學界所推測為早，為禪宗起源及傳播研究帶來突破性的啟示。
此事雖尚未為廣泛認知，但從更宏觀的歷史視角審視，佛馱跋陀羅所傳之罽賓禪法，在早期中古中國禪學史中，意外而關鍵地扮演著重要角色。宗教身份認同常能超越看似難以跨越的地理與文化藩籬，成就燈燈相續之傳承；同時，社會網絡亦往往在意想不到的時間與空間中萌芽並延續，成為宗教傳承與發展之堅實基礎。
最後，本文藉由對中國乃至東亞佛教傳統普遍自標大乘之說的反思，強調擴展學術視野的必要。唯有如此，方能對那些迄今仍被盲目歸屬大乘範疇的東亞佛教傳統，進行更為全面、細膩的起源、性質與功能之再評估，進而豐厚並深化我們對東亞佛教歷史文化的整體理解。
This study focuses on the regions of Jinling and Jingzhou in southern China, undertaking an in-depth examination of the transmission and development of meditation teachings during the fourth to sixth centuries CE. By tracing the activities of principal meditation practitioners centered in Jinling and Jingzhou, it reveals that most were closely connected to the Indian monk and translator Buddhavābhadra (359–429 CE), who arrived in Chang’an via Khotan around 404 or 408 CE. Over time, several of Buddhavābhadra’s direct disciples and their successors also journeyed to Jinling, becoming key agents in the formation and growth of the local Chan tradition.
An analysis of the meditation lineages in Jinling and Jingzhou shows that the Kashmiri meditation teachings promulgated by Buddhavābhadra and his monastic community played a decisive and leading role in shaping the development of meditation traditions in these two regions. Historical records further attest that throughout the Southern Dynasties period (Song, Qi, Liang, Chen), the meditation traditions of Jinling and Jingzhou maintained frequent and close interactions, weaving a religious network characterized by mutual nourishment and exchange.
Within the Jingchu Chan tradition, Huisi and his monastic followers are recognized as pivotal figures linking the meditation traditions of Jinling and Jingzhou. Huisi’s profound influence on the meditation style of Jingzhou is evidenced by the fact that nearly all of his documented disciples had ties to the local meditation milieu, underscoring his central role in the regional transmission and development of meditation. Importantly, this study reveals that the intersection of Huisi with the southern Chan centers of Jinling, Lushan, and Jingzhou predates prior scholarly assumptions, offering groundbreaking insights into the origins and dissemination of Chan Buddhism.
Although not yet widely acknowledged, from a broader historical perspective, the Kashmiri meditation lineage transmitted by Buddhavābhadra unexpectedly played an extremely significant role in early medieval Chinese Chan history. Religious identity often transcends seemingly insurmountable geographic and cultural boundaries, enabling the unbroken continuation of the Dharma’s lamp; simultaneously, social networks frequently arise and persist in unforeseen temporal and spatial junctures, forming a solid foundation for religious transmission and development.
Finally, by critically reflecting on the widespread academic assumption that the Buddhist traditions of China and East Asia are universally Mahāyāna in nature, this study highlights the necessity of broadening scholarly horizons. Only through such an expanded perspective can we conduct a more comprehensive and nuanced reassessment of those East Asian Buddhist traditions still uncritically categorized as Mahāyāna—thus enriching and deepening our understanding of the history and culture of Buddhism in East Asia.
Seminar 2: Imre Galambos 高奕叡 (Zhejiang University 浙江大學/University of Cambridge 劍橋大學): The Medieval Buddhist Library of Dunhuang | 中古敦煌的佛教圖書館
- Dunhuang as a special case
- The life cycle of manuscripts
- Manuscript production as collaboration
This seminar focuses on the Dunhuang manuscripts discovered inside a sealed-off cave, where they had been deposited around 1006. Our aim is to examine this body of material within its own context, including the manuscripts’ physical properties, their socio-religious function, and their political and cultural background. In the first lecture, “Dunhuang as a special case,” we begin from a bird’s-eye view of Dunhuang and try to see what makes it special. We examine what makes this region different from other sites yielding significant quantities of manuscripts; how these differences affected the material found there; and how an awareness of these differences can help us in our research. In the second lecture, “The life cycle of manuscripts,” we explore how most manuscripts did not spring into being through a single act of creation, but continued to change over the course of months, years, at times even decades. This process included people writing additional notes on them, removing sheets of paper, adding patches, or reusing them for other purposes. Together, these “events” formed the life cycle of a manuscript, ultimately resulting in the object we see today. In the third lecture, “Manuscript production as collaboration,” continues from the previous lecture in that it looks at specific cases where one manuscript was produced by several individuals. Apart from attesting to existence of such a phenomenon, the examples reveal the significance of a person’s handwriting in connection with the efficacy of the manuscript.
Seminar 3: Stephen Teiser 太史文 (Princeton University 美國普林斯頓大學): Buddhist Liturgical Manuscripts | 佛教齋儀寫本研究
1.1 Lecture: The Dunhuang Corpus & Its Significance for Social History
1.2 Lecture: Cultures of Healing in Medieval Chinese Buddhism
2.1 & 2.2. Seminars: Translation & Interpretation of Selected Liturgies by Students
- Brief review lecture on the literary style of healing liturgies
- Student presentations*
- Text 1_S 5561, 1 丈夫患文 Selections 1-6
- Text 2_S 5561, 5 俗丈夫患文 Selections 7-9
- Text 3_S 5453, 1 僧患文 Selections 10-14
- Text 4_P 2850, 2 [官患文] Selections 15-16
- Text 5_S 5561, 4 尼患文 Selections 17-20
- Text 6_S 5561, 6 難月文 Selections 21-25
- * All texts are available as PDF’s on the Seminar website
3.1 Lecture: The Process of Healing
3.2 Lecture: Epidemics
- Seminar Page (accessible to intensive program participants)
Lecture 1: Suyu CHEN 陳粟裕 (The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中國社會科學院): 3-11世紀于闐流行佛典及其相關圖像 | The Popular Buddhist Scriptures and Their Related Imagery in Khotan from the 3rd to the 11th Century
本講座聚焦于于闐佛教藝術與文化遺產的最新研究進展，特別是圍繞于闐地區在古代絲綢之路中的宗教、語言與視覺藝術互動關係展開討論。講座從絲綢之路西域南道的交通、古代于闐關於絲路的傳說入手，由此展開了于闐地區多民族、多元文化交流狀況的討論。接下來，講座回顧了一百多年來國內外在於闐佛教考古與文獻研究領域的代表性成果，強調斯坦因等早期探險者對於闐遺址的發掘與圖像記錄在現代研究中的基礎性作用。講座重點關注了和田地區出土的多種語言寫就的《般若經》《法華經》《金光明經》《賢劫經》《華嚴經》等大乘典籍及其相關圖像，從經文與圖像的對讀、圖像自身的藝術特色、多個地區同題材作品比較等角度，展現了于闐佛教藝術自身的特色，以及於闐與中原、敦煌、吐蕃、龜茲等地在佛教藝術領域的交流與互動。
This lecture focuses on the latest research advancements in Khotan Buddhist art and cultural heritage, particularly discussing the interaction of religion, language, and visual arts in the ancient Silk Road region of Khotan. The lecture begins with an exploration of the transportation networks along the Southern Route of the Western Regions of the Silk Road and the ancient Khotanese legends related to the Silk Road, thereby delving into the multicultural and diverse cultural exchanges in the Khotan region. Next, the lecture reviews representative achievements in the field of Khotan Buddhist archaeology and textual studies over the past century, both domestically and internationally, emphasizing the foundational role of early explorers like Aurel Stein in the excavation and visual documentation of Khotan sites for modern research. The lecture places special emphasis on the Mahayana scriptures unearthed in the Khotan region, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtra, Saddharmapuṇḍarīka sūtra, Suvarṇaprabhāsottama sūtra, Bhadrakapika sūtra, and Gandavyūha sūtra written in multiple languages, along with their associated imagery. Through comparative analysis of texts and images, examination of the artistic characteristics of the visuals, and comparisons with works on similar themes from other regions, the lecture highlights the distinctive features of Khotan Buddhist art. It also explores the exchanges and interactions between Khotan and Central China, Dunhuang, Tibet, and Kucha in the realm of Buddhist art.
Lecture 2: Ciro Lo Muzio 穆恣翱 (University of Rome 意大利羅馬大學): Intersecting Artistic Traditions: Khotanese, Kuchean, and Chinese Idioms in the Tarim Basin | 交織的藝術傳統：于闐、龜茲與中原習語在塔里木盆地的融合
The artistic relationship between the ancient oases of Khotan and Kucha, located on the southern and northern edges of the Takla Makan (Tarim Basin, Xinjiang), has received limited scholarly attention. Differences in their doctrinal orientations and the distinctive archaeological features of their Buddhist settlements may have discouraged deeper investigation. However, recent studies on this topic have yielded promising results. This paper aims to contribute to the discussion by examining a relatively understudied artefact: a painted wooden panel from Kizil (Kucha), most likely dating from the latest phase of the site. The panel provides iconographic and stylistic evidence of cultural interaction between the two oases, as well as the assimilation of distinct Chinese elements, which could inspire further research on the subject.
- Reading (accessible to intensive program participants)
Lecture 3: Nobuyoshi YAMABE 山部能宜 (Wasdeda University 日本早稻田大學)：Qumtura Cave 75: Paintings and Inscriptions Reexamined through Digital Restoration | 庫木吐喇第75窟：經由數位修復重新檢視壁畫與銘文
Qumtura Cave 75 is a small but important cave situated several hundred metres away from the main cave complex facing the Muzart river (Aksu District, Xinjiang, China). On its rear wall, there is a painting with a frontal view of a seated meditating monk surrounded by scenes of the five or six realms (depending on the identification of two of the six scenes) of saṃsāra. At the bottom of the same wall, there is a long but badly faded inscription. We have digitally restored and deciphered part of it. The basic context of the inscription is meditation on the “fourfold boundlessness,” combined with abhidharma cosmology and esoteric visualization. We believe that this is an important attempt at applying the technique of digital restoration to research on Buddhist caves.
庫木吐喇第75窟是一座雖小但極具重要性的石窟，位於中國新疆阿克蘇地區木扎特河對岸、距主窟群數百公尺處。其後壁上繪有一位正面坐禪僧侶的畫像，四周環繞著五或六道輪迴（取決於其中兩幅場景的認定）。同一面牆下方，有一段冗長但嚴重褪色的銘文。我們已對其進行數位修復並部分解讀。銘文的基本內容涉及對「四無量心」的觀修，並結合阿毘達磨的宇宙觀與密教觀想法門。我們認為，這項研究是運用數位修復技術於佛教石窟研究領域中的一次重要嘗試。
